The history of Palestinians, Gaza, and Israel is complex, multifaceted, and spans thousands of years. This [comprehensive](/2024-03-29-what-is-the-full-story-of-albert-einstein/) overview examines the key historical periods, pivotal events, and diverse perspectives that have shaped this enduring conflict.

Ancient History (3000 BCE - 636 CE)

Canaanites and Early Inhabitants (3000-1200 BCE)

The land historically known as Canaan was inhabited by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and other Semitic peoples. Archaeological evidence shows continuous settlement dating back to at least 3000 BCE. These early inhabitants established cities, developed agriculture, and created sophisticated trade networks.

The Philistines, from whom the name “Palestine” ultimately derives, arrived around 1200 BCE and settled primarily along the coastal regions, including what is now Gaza. They were a seafaring people, possibly of Aegean origin, who gave their name to the region.

Israelite Kingdoms (1200-586 BCE)

According to biblical tradition and archaeological findings, Hebrew tribes established kingdoms in the region:

  • United Kingdom under Saul, David, and Solomon (circa 1020-930 BCE)
  • Kingdom of Israel in the north (930-722 BCE) - conquered by Assyrians
  • Kingdom of Judah in the south (930-586 BCE) - destroyed by Babylonians

These kingdoms coexisted and sometimes conflicted with Philistines, Phoenicians, and other neighboring peoples. The First Temple was built in Jerusalem during Solomon’s reign around 950 BCE.

Persian, Greek, and Roman Rule (539 BCE - 636 CE)

Persian Period (539-332 BCE): After the Babylonian exile, Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed Jews to return and rebuild the Second Temple in Jerusalem.

Hellenistic Period (332-63 BCE): Alexander the Great conquered the region, bringing Greek culture and influence. After his death, the area was contested between Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria.

Roman Period (63 BCE - 324 CE): The Romans conquered the region and eventually destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE during the Jewish Revolt. Following the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-135 CE), Emperor Hadrian renamed the province “Syria Palaestina” to diminish Jewish connection to the land. Many Jews were killed, enslaved, or exiled, marking the beginning of the major Jewish diaspora.

Byzantine Period (324-636 CE): As Rome adopted Christianity, the region became predominantly Christian, with significant Jewish and Samaritan minorities remaining.

Islamic Period (636-1917)

Early Islamic Conquest (636-1099)

In 636 CE, Arab Muslim armies conquered the region from the Byzantines. Jerusalem was peacefully surrendered to Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 CE. The Dome of the Rock was constructed in 691 CE, making Jerusalem the third holiest site in Islam.

The population gradually converted to Islam and adopted Arabic language and culture over several centuries. However, significant Christian and Jewish communities continued to exist and were generally granted protected status (dhimmi) under Islamic law.

Crusader Interlude (1099-1291)

European Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099, establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and other Crusader states. This period was marked by violence against Muslims and Jews. Muslim leader Saladin recaptured Jerusalem in 1187, and by 1291, the Crusader presence was eliminated.

Mamluk Rule (1260-1517)

The Mamluk Sultanate based in Egypt controlled Palestine, bringing relative stability. Cities like Jerusalem, Gaza, Hebron, and Nablus flourished as regional centers. The population was predominantly Muslim Arab, with Jewish and Christian minorities.

Ottoman Empire (1517-1917)

The Ottoman Turks conquered the region in 1517, incorporating it into their vast empire for the next four centuries.

Key Characteristics:

  • Palestine was divided into administrative districts (sanjaks)
  • Population was ethnically Arab with religious diversity (Muslim majority, Christian and Jewish minorities)
  • Economy based on agriculture, trade, and religious tourism
  • Gaza served as an important commercial center
  • Jerusalem remained a sacred city for all three Abrahamic religions

19th Century Changes:

  • Muhammad Ali of Egypt briefly controlled Palestine (1831-1840)
  • Ottoman Tanzimat reforms attempted modernization
  • Beginning of European interest and intervention
  • Small-scale Jewish immigration began in the 1880s, motivated by persecution in Europe and the Zionist movement

British Mandate Period (1917-1948)

World War I and British Occupation (1917-1920)

During World War I, Britain promised support to different groups:

  • McMahon-Hussein Correspondence (1915-1916): Implied British support for Arab independence
  • Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916): Secret Anglo-French plan to divide Ottoman territories
  • Balfour Declaration (1917): Britain declared support for a “Jewish national home in Palestine”

General Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917, ending 400 years of Ottoman rule.

British Mandate (1920-1948)

The League of Nations granted Britain the Mandate for Palestine in 1920, officially beginning in 1923. The mandate incorporated the Balfour Declaration, committing Britain to facilitate Jewish immigration while protecting the rights of existing non-Jewish communities.

Increasing Tensions:

  • Jewish immigration accelerated, especially after Hitler’s rise to power in 1933
  • Palestinian Arab population felt threatened by demographic changes and land purchases
  • 1929 Hebron Massacre: Violence erupted, killing 67 Jews and displacing the ancient Jewish community
  • 1936-1939 Arab Revolt: Major Palestinian uprising against British rule and Jewish immigration, brutally suppressed
  • Peel Commission (1937): First proposal to partition Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, rejected by Arabs
  • 1939 White Paper: Britain limited Jewish immigration to appease Arabs, angering Zionists

Holocaust and Post-WWII (1939-1947)

The Holocaust (1941-1945) killed six million Jews, intensifying the Zionist drive for a Jewish state as a refuge. Jewish militant groups like the Irgun and Lehi conducted operations against both British forces and Arab civilians.

UN Partition Plan (1947): The newly formed United Nations proposed partitioning Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control. The Jewish leadership accepted; Arab leaders and Palestinians rejected it, viewing it as unjust dispossession of their homeland.

The 1948 War and Nakba

War of 1948

When Britain’s mandate ended on May 14, 1948, David Ben-Gurion declared the State of Israel. Immediately, neighboring Arab states (Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq) invaded, beginning the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.

Outcome:

  • Israel won decisively, expanding beyond the UN partition borders
  • Jordan annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem
  • Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip
  • No independent Palestinian state was created

The Nakba (“Catastrophe”)

For Palestinians, 1948 represents the Nakba - the catastrophe.

Key Facts:

  • Approximately 700,000-750,000 Palestinians became refugees
  • Over 400 Palestinian villages were depopulated and destroyed
  • Palestinians fled or were expelled through:
    • Fear of violence
    • Direct expulsion by Israeli forces
    • Psychological warfare
    • Actual massacres (e.g., Deir Yassin in April 1948)
  • Palestinians were not allowed to return, and their property was confiscated

Israeli Perspective: Israelis view 1948 as their War of Independence, a defensive war fought against Arab armies seeking to destroy the newly declared state. Many Israelis believe Palestinian refugees left voluntarily on orders from Arab leaders (historians largely dispute this claim).

Palestinian Perspective: Palestinians view 1948 as ethnic cleansing and dispossession of their homeland, where they had lived for centuries. The Nakba represents the beginning of ongoing displacement and statelessness.

Post-1948: Refugees and Divided Land (1948-1967)

Palestinian Refugees

The 1948 refugees and their descendants now number over 5 million, registered with UNRWA (UN Relief and Works Agency). They live in:

  • Gaza Strip
  • West Bank
  • Jordan (largest population)
  • Lebanon
  • Syria
  • Other countries

Palestinians demand the “Right of Return” based on UN Resolution 194 (1948). Israel rejects mass return, citing security and demographic concerns.

Gaza Under Egyptian Rule (1948-1967)

Egypt administered the Gaza Strip but did not annex it or grant citizenship to Palestinians. Gaza became severely overcrowded with refugees living in camps. Egypt restricted movement and provided limited economic opportunities.

West Bank Under Jordanian Rule (1948-1967)

Jordan annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem in 1950, granting citizenship to Palestinians. However, the region remained economically underdeveloped compared to the East Bank.

Israel’s Early Years (1948-1967)

Israel absorbed nearly 700,000 Jewish refugees from Europe and Arab countries between 1948-1952. The state established democratic institutions, built infrastructure, and developed agriculture and industry. However:

  • Arab citizens (about 20% of population) lived under military rule until 1966
  • Palestinians who remained in Israel faced discrimination and land confiscation
  • Ongoing border conflicts and raids occurred with neighboring Arab states

The Six-Day War and Occupation (1967)

The 1967 War

In June 1967, amid escalating tensions, Israel launched a pre-emptive strike against Egypt, Syria, and Jordan in the Six-Day War.

Outcome:

  • Israel captured the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt
  • Israel captured the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan
  • Israel captured the Golan Heights from Syria
  • The war lasted only six days, with decisive Israeli victory

Consequences of 1967

UN Security Council Resolution 242 (November 1967) called for:

  • Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967
  • Recognition of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states
  • A just settlement of the refugee problem

For Palestinians:

  • All Palestinian territories now under Israeli military occupation
  • Another 300,000-400,000 Palestinians became refugees
  • Beginning of Israeli settlement construction in occupied territories
  • East Jerusalem was annexed by Israel and its boundaries expanded

For Israel:

  • Control over biblical heartland (West Bank/Judea and Samaria)
  • United Jerusalem under Israeli control
  • Strategic depth and defensible borders
  • Beginning of debates over “land for peace” vs. “Greater Israel”

PLO, Resistance, and the Peace Process (1967-1993)

Rise of the PLO

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1964, gained prominence after 1967 under Yasser Arafat’s leadership. Initially focused on armed struggle against Israel, the PLO conducted:

  • Guerrilla attacks
  • International hijackings and terrorism
  • The Munich Olympics massacre (1972)

The PLO was recognized by Arab states and the UN General Assembly (1974) as the “sole legitimate representative” of Palestinians.

October War (Yom Kippur War) - 1973

Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur (October 6, 1973). After initial Arab gains, Israel pushed back with U.S. support. The war ended in a stalemate but led to:

  • Camp David Accords (1978): Egypt recognized Israel, regaining Sinai
  • Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty (1979): First Arab country to make peace with Israel
  • Egypt was expelled from the Arab League

First Intifada (1987-1993)

In December 1987, a spontaneous Palestinian uprising began in Gaza and spread throughout the occupied territories. The First Intifada featured:

  • Stone-throwing by Palestinian youth
  • Civil disobedience and strikes
  • Boycott of Israeli products
  • Israeli military crackdowns

Significance: The Intifada demonstrated Palestinian determination and unity, drawing international attention to their plight. It shifted Palestinian strategy from external armed struggle to internal popular resistance.

Hamas Emerges (1987)

During the First Intifada, Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement) was founded as an offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood. Hamas rejected the PLO’s secular nationalism, instead advocating for an Islamic state in all of historic Palestine. Hamas combined:

  • Social services and charity
  • Political activism
  • Armed resistance and terrorism

Hamas would later become the dominant force in Gaza.

Oslo Accords and Peace Process (1993-2000)

Oslo Accords (1993)

After secret negotiations in Norway, the PLO and Israel signed the Oslo Accords on September 13, 1993, on the White House lawn.

Key Provisions:

  • Mutual recognition: PLO recognized Israel; Israel recognized PLO as Palestinian representative
  • Creation of the Palestinian Authority (PA) for interim self-governance
  • Phased Israeli withdrawal from parts of West Bank and Gaza
  • Final status negotiations to address Jerusalem, refugees, borders, settlements within 5 years

Oslo II (1995) divided the West Bank into:

  • Area A: Palestinian civil and security control
  • Area B: Palestinian civil control, Israeli security control
  • Area C: Full Israeli control (60% of West Bank, including settlements)

Hope and Disappointment (1993-2000)

The Oslo period began with optimism but gradually deteriorated:

Positive Developments:

  • Reduction in violence initially
  • Economic cooperation and development in PA areas
  • Yasser Arafat returned to lead the PA

Growing Problems:

  • Israeli settlement expansion accelerated (doubling during 1990s)
  • Checkpoints and restrictions on Palestinian movement increased
  • Palestinian terrorism continued, including suicide bombings by Hamas and Islamic Jihad
  • Rabin’s assassination (1995) by a right-wing Israeli extremist slowed progress
  • Final status issues (Jerusalem, refugees, borders) proved intractable
  • Growing Palestinian disillusionment with PA corruption and Israeli policies

Camp David Summit (2000)

In July 2000, President Clinton hosted Israeli PM Ehud Barak and Yasser Arafat at Camp David for final status negotiations.

What Happened:

  • Israel offered approximately 90% of West Bank
  • Land swaps for some settlements
  • Shared control of Jerusalem
  • Limited refugee return

Outcome: Negotiations collapsed. The parties disputed who rejected which proposals and who was responsible for failure. Palestinians felt the offer was insufficient and Israel retained too much control; Israelis felt they made unprecedented offers that were rejected.

Second Intifada and Gaza Disengagement (2000-2005)

Second Intifada (2000-2005)

The Second Intifada (Al-Aqsa Intifada) began in September 2000 after Ariel Sharon’s controversial visit to the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif.

Characteristics:

  • Much more violent than First Intifada
  • Frequent Palestinian suicide bombings targeting Israeli civilians (buses, cafes, markets)
  • Israeli military operations and targeted assassinations of Palestinian militants
  • Approximately 3,000 Palestinians and 1,000 Israelis killed
  • Destruction of PA infrastructure by Israel
  • Construction of Israeli West Bank separation barrier/wall (2002-)

Impact:

  • Devastated Palestinian economy and institutions
  • Hardened attitudes on both sides
  • Undermined Israeli peace camp
  • Strengthened Hamas politically

Gaza Disengagement (2005)

In August 2005, PM Ariel Sharon unilaterally withdrew all Israeli settlements and military from Gaza, removing 8,000 settlers and evacuating bases.

Israeli Rationale:

  • Reduce costs of occupation
  • Focus security resources
  • Improve international image
  • Demographic concerns (maintaining Jewish majority)

Palestinian Response: Mixed - welcomed end of occupation but criticized as unilateral rather than negotiated.

Hamas Takeover of Gaza (2006-2007)

2006 Elections

In January 2006, Hamas won Palestinian legislative elections, defeating Fatah (the PLO’s main faction). This shocked the region and international community.

Why Hamas Won:

  • Fatah corruption and incompetence
  • Failure of Oslo peace process
  • Hamas’s reputation for effective social services
  • Hamas’s resistance credentials

International Response:

  • U.S., EU, and Israel refused to recognize Hamas government
  • International aid was cut off to pressure Hamas
  • Quartet (U.S., EU, UN, Russia) demanded Hamas recognize Israel, renounce violence, accept previous agreements

Hamas-Fatah Civil War (2007)

Tensions between Hamas (which controlled the government) and Fatah (which controlled security forces and the presidency) led to violent clashes. In June 2007, Hamas forcibly seized control of Gaza in a brief but bloody conflict.

Result: Palestinian territories split:

  • Hamas controls Gaza Strip
  • Fatah/Palestinian Authority controls West Bank (under Israeli occupation)
  • Efforts at reconciliation have repeatedly failed

Gaza Under Hamas (2007-Present)

Israeli-Egyptian Blockade

After Hamas’s takeover, Israel and Egypt imposed a strict blockade on Gaza, controlling:

  • Movement of people
  • Import of goods
  • Access to sea and airspace

Israeli Justification: Security - preventing weapons imports and attacks on Israel.

Palestinian/Humanitarian Perspective: Collective punishment of 2 million civilians, causing humanitarian crisis.

Gaza Today:

  • Population: 2.1 million (one of world’s most densely populated areas)
  • 70% are refugees from 1948 or their descendants
  • 50% unemployment rate
  • Severe restrictions on electricity, water, medicine, building materials
  • Described by UN as “unlivable” by 2020

Rocket Attacks and Wars

Hamas and other militant groups (Islamic Jihad, etc.) have fired thousands of rockets at Israeli cities from Gaza, causing deaths, injuries, and trauma.

Israel has responded with:

  • Iron Dome missile defense system (2011-)
  • Targeted airstrikes
  • Full-scale military operations

Major Military Operations:

  1. Operation Cast Lead (December 2008 - January 2009)
    • 3 weeks of intense Israeli bombardment and ground invasion
    • 1,400 Palestinians killed (majority civilians, according to UN)
    • 13 Israelis killed
    • Widespread destruction in Gaza
  2. Operation Pillar of Defense (November 2012)
    • 8 days of airstrikes
    • 170 Palestinians and 6 Israelis killed
  3. Operation Protective Edge (July-August 2014)
    • 51 days of war
    • 2,200 Palestinians killed (mostly civilians, according to UN)
    • 73 Israelis killed (mostly soldiers)
    • Massive infrastructure destruction in Gaza
    • Discovery of Hamas tunnel network into Israel
  4. May 2021 Conflict
    • 11 days of fighting
    • Triggered by Jerusalem tensions and Sheikh Jarrah evictions
    • 260 Palestinians and 14 Israelis killed
    • Intense rocket fire and airstrikes

Cycle of Violence: These conflicts follow a pattern - tensions escalate, rockets are fired, Israel responds with disproportionate force, ceasefire is reached, conditions deteriorate, cycle repeats.

West Bank: Settlements and Status Quo (2007-Present)

Settlement Expansion

Israeli settlements in the West Bank have grown continuously despite international law designating them illegal (Fourth Geneva Convention).

Current Situation:

  • Over 700,000 Israeli settlers in West Bank and East Jerusalem
  • 130+ settlements and 100+ outposts
  • Settlements control approximately 40% of West Bank land
  • Bypass roads, military zones, and settlements fragment Palestinian areas

Impact on Palestinians:

  • Land confiscation
  • Restricted access to farmland and water
  • Violence from extremist settlers
  • Separation from families and services
  • Makes viable Palestinian state increasingly impossible

Palestinian Authority

The PA under Mahmoud Abbas (president since 2005) controls areas A and B of West Bank.

Criticisms:

  • Security coordination with Israel against Hamas
  • Widespread corruption
  • Authoritarian governance
  • Economic dependence on Israel and foreign aid
  • Unable to achieve statehood or end occupation

Abbas is now in his 19th year of a 4-year term, with no elections held.

Recent Developments and Current Situation

Jerusalem

Jerusalem remains the most sensitive issue. Israel claims it as its “eternal, undivided capital.” Palestinians claim East Jerusalem as the capital of their future state.

Key Flashpoints:

  • Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif: Sacred to both Jews and Muslims
  • Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood: Palestinian families facing eviction by Israeli courts
  • Al-Aqsa Mosque: Restrictions and police raids cause tensions

Trump Administration (2017-2021)

The Trump administration took unprecedented pro-Israel stances:

  • Recognized Jerusalem as Israel’s capital (2017)
  • Moved U.S. embassy to Jerusalem (2018)
  • Recognized Israeli sovereignty over Golan Heights (2019)
  • “Deal of the Century” peace plan (2020): Heavily favored Israel, rejected by Palestinians
  • Facilitated Abraham Accords: Israel normalized relations with UAE, Bahrain, Morocco, Sudan

Abraham Accords (2020)

Several Arab states normalized relations with Israel without resolving the Palestinian issue first, breaking decades of Arab consensus that normalization would come only after Palestinian statehood.

Impact: Further marginalized Palestinians and their cause.

Biden Administration (2021-Present)

President Biden restored some aid to Palestinians but largely continued Trump’s policies, maintaining embassy in Jerusalem and not pressuring Israel on settlements.

October 7, 2023, and Aftermath

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a massive surprise attack on Israel, killing approximately 1,200 Israelis (mostly civilians) in brutal massacres and taking about 240 hostages to Gaza. This was the deadliest attack on Jews since the Holocaust.

Israeli Response: Israel declared war and launched an intensive military campaign against Gaza:

  • Massive airstrikes across Gaza
  • Ground invasion
  • As of early 2024, over 30,000 Palestinians killed (according to Gaza health ministry)
  • Widespread destruction of homes, hospitals, schools, infrastructure
  • Humanitarian catastrophe with acute shortages of food, water, medicine
  • Over 1.5 million displaced within Gaza
  • International community divided on whether Israel’s response is justified self-defense or disproportionate/war crimes

International Response:

  • South Africa filed case at International Court of Justice accusing Israel of genocide
  • UN agencies called for ceasefire
  • U.S. continued strong support for Israel while calling for protection of civilians
  • Protests worldwide - both pro-Israel and pro-Palestinian

This conflict represents the most catastrophic escalation in decades.

Understanding the Core Issues

The Key Disputes

1. Borders and Territory

  • Palestinians want a state in West Bank, Gaza, and East Jerusalem (1967 borders)
  • Israel wants to retain major settlement blocs and security control
  • Disagreement over land swaps and percentages

2. Jerusalem

  • Both sides claim Jerusalem as their capital
  • Holy sites (Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif, Western Wall, Al-Aqsa, Church of Holy Sepulchre)
  • Proposals range from shared sovereignty to partition to exclusive control

3. Refugees and Right of Return

  • Palestinians demand implementation of UN Resolution 194 (right of return)
  • Israel fears demographic threat to Jewish majority
  • Proposals include limited return, compensation, resettlement

4. Security

  • Israel demands recognition, end to terrorism, security guarantees
  • Palestinians demand end to occupation, freedom of movement, sovereignty
  • Mutual distrust prevents compromises

5. Settlements

  • Palestinians view settlements as illegal obstacles to peace
  • Many Israelis view settlements as legitimate and cite biblical/historical claims
  • Settler population has grown too large to easily relocate

Perspectives

Israeli Perspective:

  • Israel is the historic homeland of the Jewish people
  • Jews faced persecution for centuries, culminating in the Holocaust
  • Israel has the right to exist as a Jewish state
  • Israel faces existential threats and must prioritize security
  • Palestinians have rejected peace offers and choose terrorism
  • Israel is the only democracy in the Middle East
  • Arab states have 22 countries; Jews deserve one small state

Palestinian Perspective:

  • Palestinians lived in Palestine for centuries before Zionist immigration
  • They were dispossessed and ethnically cleansed in the Nakba
  • They have the right to self-determination and statehood
  • Israeli occupation is brutal, illegal, and violates human rights
  • Settlements are theft of Palestinian land
  • Resistance is a right against occupation
  • They have been abandoned by Arab states and the international community

Both Sides:

  • Deep historical trauma and victimization narratives
  • Valid security concerns and fears
  • Extremists on both sides undermine moderates
  • Zero-sum thinking (“their gain is our loss”)
  • Dehumanization of the other side

Conclusion: A Conflict Without Easy Solutions

The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is one of the world’s most intractable disputes, with:

  • Over 100 years of competing nationalisms
  • Multiple failed peace processes
  • Cycles of violence and retaliation
  • Asymmetric power dynamics
  • Deep mistrust on both sides
  • Interference from external powers
  • Religious dimensions adding complexity

Potential Solutions:

Two-State Solution: Historically the international consensus - an Israeli state alongside a Palestinian state in West Bank and Gaza. However, this is increasingly seen as unfeasible due to settlements and political realities.

One-State Solution: A single democratic state with equal rights for all. Critics say this would mean the end of Israel as a Jewish state or would be an apartheid system without equal rights.

Confederation: Israeli and Palestinian states in close association with open borders and shared institutions.

Status Quo: The current situation continues indefinitely, with Israel maintaining control and Palestinians living under occupation or blockade.

The Humanitarian Reality:

  • Millions of Palestinians live under occupation or as stateless refugees
  • Israelis face ongoing security threats and trauma
  • Children on both sides grow up with violence and fear
  • Economic costs are enormous
  • Regional instability affects all

Moving Forward: Any sustainable solution must address:

  • Palestinian rights and dignity
  • Israeli security and recognition
  • Historical grievances of both peoples
  • Fair division of land and resources
  • Status of Jerusalem
  • Refugee question
  • Mutual recognition and coexistence

The conflict will only be resolved when both sides recognize each other’s legitimate rights and grievances, supported by the international community. The alternative is continued suffering for both Israelis and Palestinians. The question remains: do the leaders and peoples have the courage, wisdom, and compassion to end this century-long tragedy?